Great ape social systems
pp. 1593-1629
in: Winfried Henke, Ian Tattersall (eds), Handbook of Paleoanthropology, Berlin, Springer, 2015Abstract
For decades, the social systems of the great ape species were described as being fundamentally different, but long-term field studies have questioned this idea. Although orangutans seem to be less social than the African apes, they have the ability to socialize and spend much time in contact with conspecifics if ecological conditions permit. Although the social behavior of chimpanzees and bonobos seems very different, their social structure is similar. The social systems of all great apes have common traits. They are characterized by weak ties, female transfer is common, they have a tendency toward fission-fusion grouping and a complex social network, females lack sharply defined dominance relations, and intrasexual bonds among non-kin can be relatively strong. There is remarkable intraspecific variability in social organization and structure; differences in ecological conditions seem to be very important in determining this. Frugivory especially requires a mobile and flexible social system. Compared to the great apes, humans show even greater variability.